Fig. 1 Bouguer anomaly map for the Moon. A color-contoured map of the Bouguer-corrected GRAIL gravity anomaly, in Mollweide equal-area projection centered on the nearside at 7°E longitude, band-passed between ~10- and 900-km block size and hill-shaded from above. The Bouguer anomaly scale is in mGal (milliGalileo; 10−5 m s−2). Over spherical harmonic degrees 6 to 540, the band-pass window predominantly removes the effect of the hemispheric asymmetry and the South Pole–Aitken impact and allows identification of impact basins up to the size of Imbrium. Red/white circles show proposed basins having only one topographic ring and no interior peak ring or central peak but a gravity signature similar to those of peak-ring basins. Blue-white circles outline basins that lack a clearly defined topographic rim crest but that are suggested by gravity anomaly patterns to be basins (see the Supplementary Materials for details).
Fig. 2 Freundlich-Sharonov basin. (A) Topography of this farside peak-ring basin is shown over shaded relief. Inset: Location of the region. Solid (582-km-diameter) and dashed (318-km-diameter) circles mark the rim crest or main ring and inner peak ring, respectively. (B) Bouguer gravity anomaly map band-passed between ~10- and 900-km block size, directionally shaded. The Bouguer gravity anomaly contour interval is 100 mGal. (C) Cross-sectional diagram of the topography, free-air anomaly (FAA), Bouguer anomaly (BA), and crustal structure (23) along profile A–A′. Vertical exaggeration (VE) is 6:1. Arrows denote the locations of the outer rim crest and inner peak ring. Dashed lines illustrate Bouguer contrast between spatial averages over the central (from 0 to 20% of the rim radius) and annular (50 to 100%) regions.
Fig. 3 Bouguer anomaly contrast versus main ring diameter (log scale). Symbols show complex craters >160 km in diameter (blue triangles), nearside basins (black symbols), and farside basins (red symbols). Open symbols represent possible basins in which multiple rings are not preserved. The rate of increase in Bouguer anomaly contrast given by a log-linear least-squares fit to diameter (dashed line) is about 240 mGal per factor of 2 increase in diameter. Moscoviense is believed to be a double impact (41) and is plotted as two separate points, Moscoviense and Moscoviense North.
Fig. 4 Diameter of the central positive Bouguer anomaly versus diameter of the peak ring or inner topographic ring. The 16 peak-ring (black) and 11 multiring (red) basins identified in this and previous studies (7) are shown. Identification of the inner ring of the Serenitatis basin (fig. S1) is uncertain owing to later modification. Both a 660-km-diameter Haemus ring and a 420-km-diameter Linné ring (both named for topographic features along the rings) are shown connected by a red line. The dashed line indicates a 1:1 ratio.
Fig. 5 Cumulative size-frequency distribution for complex craters and basins. The blue line shows data for all the craters and basins in Table 1. The shaded region spans the 1-SD error estimates. Black diamonds and red squares show the cumulative size-frequency distributions for nearside and farside craters, respectively, normalized by area; for these symbols, the cumulative number scale on the left reads two times the value. Short horizontal blue lines show confidence limits of N(300) for the overall population. The cumulative Hartmann production function (30) for craters larger than 64 km is shown by the green line with a slope of −2.2, extrapolated for diameters larger than 300 km (vertical dotted line). The main ring diameter was inferred from the diameter of the central Bouguer anomaly high for basins observed in GRAIL data that lack an outer topographic rim.
Fig. 6 Relative size-frequency distribution of lunar craters and basins. Logarithmic plot of relative frequency R of craters in this study (blue circles) versus the geometric mean d of diameters in each size bin. Bin boundaries from b1 to b2 containing N craters range from 24.5 to 211.5 km by multiples of √2. The frequencies are normalized to R = d3N/[A(b2 − b1)], where A is the surface area of the Moon. The data set in this study contains substantially more features of a given size than the database of Head et al. (6) (brown diamonds, 1-SD confidence shaded in pink), except in the interval centered on 214 km where the “Keeler-Heaviside” and “TOPO-19” features did not meet our criteria for inclusion. Green squares illustrate the size distribution of main-belt asteroids from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey [after Strom et al. (38), Fig. 4], normalized in scale to match the relative values of the lunar crater population at a diameter of 100 km.
- Table 1 Lunar basins ≥200 km in diameter recognized from GRAIL and LOLA data.
Names are approved by the International Astronomical Union, except where denoted by (a), indicating a name assigned here on the basis of a nearby feature, or (b), a proposed name (5, 29). TOPO and CTA (circular thin area) names are from Frey (28). The diameter of the main or outer ring is from Head et al. (6) and Baker et al. (7) except where a mappable rim is absent, for example, Crüger-Sirsalis; otherwise, coordinates and inner diameter are estimated from Bouguer anomaly contours, whereas the main rim crest diameter is estimated from azimuthally averaged topographic relief or (c) inferred from the diameter of the central Bouguer anomaly by 2:1 scaling. Multiring basin confidence and ring diameter criteria are described in the Supplementary Text. Ring confidence is denoted by the following: { }, suggested by scaling; [ ], possible; ( ), probable; all others, certain. MR, multiring basin; PC, ringed peak-cluster basin (7); PR, peak-ring basin; ghost ring is a wrinkle-ridge arc indicating a possible buried ring.
Name Center Ring diameters
(km)Bouguer anomaly Latitude
(°N)Longitude
(°E)Main Inner Notes and additional
ring diameters (km)Diameter (km) Contrast (mGal) Szilard Northa 34.3 105.6 (200) 146 182 ± 20 Bel’kovich 61.5 90.2 205 104 37 ± 14 Wegener-Winlockb 40.2 251.6 (205) PR* 132 37 ± 6 Humboldt −27.15 81 206 PC 156 52 ± 14 Oppenheimer −35.4 194.0 206 PR* 122 57 ± 8 Schickard −44.5 305.0 206 PR* 92 57 ± 9 Schwarzschild 70.3 121 207 71 PR 90 40 ± 9 Galois −14 207.7 210 Minimal contrast 2 ± 14 Rupes Rectaa −22.5 353.0 (212) Partially flooded 25 ± 12† Keeler West −10.1 156.8 (218) Minimal contrast 5 ± 20† Clavius −58.8 345.3 220 Minimal contrast 6 ± 9 Deslandres −32.6 354.7 220 PR* 112 142 ± 19 TOPO-13b −37.25 147.4 [220] 90 103 ± 12 Poczobutt 57.7 260.4 225 PR* 128 76 ± 12 Pasteur −11.5 104.8 231 PR* 130 42 ± 9 d’Alembert 51.05 164.8 232 106 PR 126 46 ± 6 Landau 42.2 240.8 236 PR* 112 64 ± 9 Campbell 45.5 153.0 237 PR* 98 39 ± 9 Fermi −19.8 123.4 241 PR* 104 78 ± 5 Leibnitz −38.2 179.2 247 PR* 84 66 ± 18 Iriduma 44.8 328.4 252 Sinus Iridum, PR* 38 ± 10† von Kármán M −47.1 176.2 255 [114] PR* 128 149 ± 18 Gagarin −19.7 149.4 256 PR* 106 43 ± 13 Copernicus-Ha 7.2 341.8 {260}c [130]c 152 162 ± 5 Milne −31.25 112.8 264 114 PR 126 195 ± 22 Balmer-Kapteynb −15.8 69.6 265 [130] PR* 138 192 ± 22 Sikorsky-Rittenhausb −68.4 109.5 270 [110] PR* 106 66 ± 8 Orientale Southwesta −28.0 251.0 276 PR* 162 173 ± 28 Harkhebi 40.0 98.6 280 PR* 136 108 ± 30 Bartels-Voskresenskiya 27.7 268.2 [290] [160] PR* 152 197 ± 22 Bailly −67.1 291.1 299 130 PR 112 94 ± 16 Poincare −57.3 163.1 312 175 PR 188 185 ± 11 Planck −57.4 135.1 321 160 PR 128 167 ± 52 Mediia 0.8 0.5 [326] Sinus Medii; CTA-01 174 160 ± 8 Schrödinger −74.9 133.5 326 150 PR 154 240 ± 19 Aestuuma 11.3 351.1 [330] [165] Sinus Aestuum; CTA-25; PR* 196 268 ± 10 Mendeleev 5.5 141.1 331 144 PR 156 159 ± 33 Birkhoff 58.9 213.4 334 163 PR 130 90 ± 16 Ingenii −32.8 163.8 342 PR* 154 181 ± 22 Lorentz 34.2 263.0 351 173 PR 156 240 ± 38 Schiller-Zucchius −55.7 314.8 361 179 PR 210 331 ± 15 Lamont 4.8 23.4 [370]c [120] Ghost ring 206 213 ± 23 Crisium Easta 16.5 66 [372] [186] Possible oblique impact; TOPO-05 206 339 ± 45† Fowler-Charlierb 39.5 218.0 [374] PR* 210 156 ± 18 Amundsen-Ganswindtb −81.0 123.0 378 PR* 170 272 ± 46 Vaporumb 14.2 3.1 [410] 220 Mare; CTA-02 222 120 ± 24 Korolev −4.4 202.2 417 206 PR 202 173 ± 15 Serenitatis Northa 35.7 16.8 [420]c [210] 230 161 ± 26 Moscoviense 26.1 147 421‡ 192 PR 632 ± 27† Crüger-Sirsalisb −16.0 293.0 [430]c 212 PR* 268 331 ± 19 Mutus-Vlacq −53.5 24.0 [450]c {225} 224 107 ± 13 Dirichlet-Jacksonb 13.4 201.8 (452) [228] PR*; TOPO-24 220 182 ± 22 Grimaldi −5.0 291.3 460 234 PR 220 431 ± 15 Apollo −36.1 208.3 492 247 PR 264 329 ± 10 TOPO-22a 49.4 179 {500} [250]c Depression near Debye 272 274 ± 21 Hertzsprung 2.0 231 571 256 MR intermediate (408), inner depression (108) 254 ± 38 404 ± 37 Freundlich-Sharonovb 18.35 175.2 582 318 PR 318 528 ± 18 Fitzgerald-Jacksonb 25.1 190.6 {600} (346) 334 224 ± 48 Humboldtianum 57.26 82 618 322 Possible MR intermediate [463], [197] 312 ± 27 482 ± 12 Moscoviense Northa 27.3 148.8 640‡ [340] PR*; double impact (65) Mendel-Rydbergb −49.8 265.4 650 ( 325) MR 485, 203 328 ± 26 572 ± 18 Coulomb-Sartonb 51.2 237.5 [672] 315 Possible MR (401), 158 330 ± 18 391 ± 20 Fecunditatis −4.6 52.0 [690] {345} Mare basin 358 205 ± 46 Nubium −21.3 343.4 [690] Mare basin, estimates vary 416 81 ± 41 Asperitatisa −7.7 26.8 {730}c (345)c Sinus name 342 260 ± 26 Humorum −23.8 320.8 816 441 Probable MR (569), (322) 360 ± 21 450 ± 11 Smythii −2.5 86.9 878 484 Probable MR (375) 438 ± 62 494 ± 24 Australe Northa −35.5 96 {880} Mare basin 538 101 ± 22 Nectaris −15.6 35.1 885 440 Certain MR 623, (270) 440 ± 61 514 ± 12 Serenitatis 25.4 18.8 [923] [416] Possible MR 660 556 ± 64 450 ± 8 Orientale −20.1 265.2 937 481 Certain MR 639, 341 436 ± 20 720 ± 28 Crisium 16.8 58.4 1076 505 Probable MR 809, (364) 498 ± 31 598 ± 10 Imbrium 37 341.5 1321 676 Probable MR (1012) 684 ± 45 375 ± 37 South Pole–Aitkenb −53.0 191.0 2400 2028 Elliptical shape, 19°W long axis 395 *The topographic rim is in the diameter range of peak-ring basins but no inner ring has been preserved.
†Contrast estimate from nonoverlapped portion. The estimated Bouguer anomaly contrast for South Pole–Aitken is taken from a gravity field band-passed from spherical harmonic degrees 1 to 540.
‡The characteristics of a pre-Moscoviense impact, designated Moscoviense North, are further described in the Supplementary Materials.
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary material for this article is available at http://advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/1/9/e1500852/DC1
Supplementary Text
Morphology and morphometry of impact basins
Maps of impact basins
Multiring basins
Peak-ring basins and other sizeable lunar impacts
Basins without measurable rings that are identifed by GRAIL Bouguer gravity anomaly
Fig. S1. Serenitatis, Serenitatis North, and Lamont.
Fig. S2. Fitzgerald-Jackson.
Fig. S3. Amundsen-Ganswindt and Schrödinger.
Fig. S4. Nectaris and Asperitatis.
Fig. S5. Lorentz and Bartels-Voskresenskiy.
Fig. S6. Copernicus-H and Aestuum.
Fig. S7. Orientale and Orientale Southwest.
Fig. S8. Mendel-Rydberg.
Fig. S9. Imbrium and Iridum.
Fig. S10. Crisium and Crisium East.
Fig. S11. Humorum.
Fig. S12. Hertzsprung.
Fig. S13. Humboldtianum and Bel’kovich.
Fig. S14. Coulomb-Sarton and Fowler-Charlier.
Fig. S15. Smythii and Balmer-Kapteyn.
Fig. S16. Moscoviense and Moscoviense North.
Fig. S17. TOPO-22.
Fig. S18. Australe North.
Table S1. Lunar craters <200 km in diameter suggested from LOLA data.
Table S2. Diameters of the rings and inner depressions of multiring basins measured from LOLA topography and GRAIL Bouguer anomaly data.
Table S3. Ring diameters and centroids for circles fit to the rings of multiring basins.
Table S4. Lunar peak-ring basins.
Table S5. Lunar impact structures ≥200 km in diameter with only one topographic ring and no interior peak ring or central peak structure.
Table S6. Lunar depressions suggested by GRAIL data to be degraded basins.
Table S7. Features in basin catalogs not meeting criteria for inclusion in this study.
References (42–65)
Additional Files
Supplementary Materials
This PDF file includes:
- Supplementary Text
- Morphology and morphometry of impact basins
- Maps of impact basins
- Multiring basins
- Peak-ring basins and other sizeable lunar impacts
- Basins without measurable rings that are identifed by GRAIL Bouguer gravity anomaly
- Fig. S1. Serenitatis, Serenitatis North, and Lamont.
- Fig. S2. Fitzgerald-Jackson.
- Fig. S3. Amundsen-Ganswindt and Schrödinger.
- Fig. S4. Nectaris and Asperitatis.
- Fig. S5. Lorentz and Bartels-Voskresenskiy.
- Fig. S6. Copernicus-H and Aestuum.
- Fig. S7. Orientale and Orientale Southwest.
- Fig. S8. Mendel-Rydberg.
- Fig. S9. Imbrium and Iridum.
- Fig. S10. Crisium and Crisium East.
- Fig. S11. Humorum.
- Fig. S12. Hertzsprung.
- Fig. S13. Humboldtianum and Bel’kovich.
- Fig. S14. Coulomb-Sarton and Fowler-Charlier.
- Fig. S15. Smythii and Balmer-Kapteyn.
- Fig. S16. Moscoviense and Moscoviense North.
- Fig. S17. TOPO-22.
- Fig. S18. Australe North.
- Table S1. Lunar craters <200 km in diameter suggested from LOLA data.
- Table S2. Diameters of the rings and inner depressions of multiring basins measured from LOLA topography and GRAIL Bouguer anomaly data.
- Table S3. Ring diameters and centroids for circles fit to the rings of multiring basins.
- Table S4. Lunar peak-ring basins.
- Table S5. Lunar impact structures ≥200 km in diameter with only one topographic ring and no interior peak ring or central peak structure.
- Table S6. Lunar depressions suggested by GRAIL data to be degraded basins.
- Table S7. Features in basin catalogs not meeting criteria for inclusion in this study.
- References (42–65)
Files in this Data Supplement:
