Fig. 1 Concentration in the ocean economy. Revenue share accounted for by the 10 largest companies in each of the eight core industries of the ocean economy. The outer band indicates the respective industry total revenue in 2018 USD. Note that the level of concentration for “marine equipment and construction” is highly conservative due to the use of the higher end of total industry revenues, which we estimated between USD 83 and 354 billion. See section S1 for details on estimates and sources.
- Table 1 Ocean economy industries.
The definitions are according to the OECD (2). Revenues are for 2018, with percentages representing the respective industry’s share of the total revenues in the ocean economy from these eight industries. See section S1 and table S4 for details on estimates and sources.
Industry Definition Revenues (USD billion) Notes Offshore oil and gas Exploration and production of
offshore oil and gas, including the
operation and maintenance of
equipment related to this activity830 (45%) This revenue figure does not include
onshore oil and gas operationMarine equipment and construction Manufacturing of marine equipment
and materials354 (19%) Examples include machinery, valves,
cables, sensors, ship materials,
aquaculture supplies, and wind
farmsSeafood Industrial capture fisheries,
aquaculture, and fish processing
activities276 (15%) Includes farm production of seafood
and micro- and macro-algae,
economic activity related to catch
production, and the preparation
and preservation of fish,
crustaceans, and mollusks,
production of fishmeal for human
consumption and animal feed, as
well as processing of seaweed.
Does not include small-scale or
artisanal fisheriesContainer shipping Transportation of containerized
freight through the ocean156 (8%) Does not include the building and
repair of vessels, nor oil and gas
cargo, dry bulk cargo, or car
carrier/ROROShipbuilding and repair Building, repair, and maintenance of
ships and boats118 (6%) Cruise tourism Transportation of passengers
through the ocean for tourism and
recreation purposes47 (3%) Serving as a potential measure of
ocean-related tourism and
recreation activities, although it
does not include activities located
in a place near or adjoining the
coast, which are often aggregated
with tourism and recreation data
not related to the oceanPort activities Cargo handling, logistics, security,
employment, as well as
maintenance, development, and
construction of port infrastructure38 (2%) Offshore wind Production of electric power from
offshore wind37 (2%) Encompasses companies that own
and operate offshore wind farms.
Offshore wind turbine suppliers
are included in the marine
equipment and construction
industry - Table 2 Prominent green clubs with a focus on promoting sustainable ocean business.
Initiative Description Examples of reported impacts Association of Responsible Krill Fishers (ARK)
www.ark-krill.orgEstablished in 2012, ARK brings together
companies engaged in Antarctic krill fishing to
ensure the long-term sustainability of the
fishery and its dependent predators. ARK
includes 1 of the Ocean 100 companiesEstablishment of three voluntary restricted zones
and 100% compliance by fleets during the
2019/2020 season
www.ark-krill.org/ark-voluntary-measuresGlobal Salmon Initiative (GSI)
www.globalsalmoninitiative.orgEstablished in 2013, the GSI is a leadership
initiative situated at CEO-level that aims to
promote sustainable salmon production while
minimizing its carbon footprint. GSI includes 2
of the Ocean 100 companiesCommitment by members to 100% certification of
farms by Aquaculture Stewardship Council.
Growth from 0% in 2013 to 65% of production
in 2020
https://globalsalmoninitiative.org/en/sustainability-report/asc-certification/IPIECA
www.ipieca.orgEstablished in 1974, IPIECA is the only global
association of upstream and downstream oil
and gas industry companies, with a focus on
improving environmental and social
performance. IPIECA includes 24 of the Ocean
100 companiesStandardization of reporting among member
companies, with 82% of members producing
corporate social responsibility (CSR) reports and
79% now using IPIECA reporting guidance
http://www.ipieca.org/our-work/sustainability-reporting/member-sustainability-reports/Ocean Renewable Energy Action Coalition
(OREAC) N/ALaunched in early 2020, the OREAC has a focus on
sustainable development of ocean-based
renewable energy and mitigating the effects of
climate change. OREAC includes 3 of the Ocean
100 companiesFirst report and roadmap to 2050 to be launched
in late 2020
https://gwec.net/oreac-1400-gw-of-offshore-wind-is-possible-by-2050-and-will-be-key-for-green-recovery/Seafood Business for Ocean Stewardship (SeaBOS)
www.seabos.orgLaunched in 2016, SeaBOS is a science-business
initiative including 10 of the world’s largest
seafood companies with commitments to
leading a global transformation toward ocean
stewardship. SeaBOS includes 6 of the Ocean
100 companiesSet of 10 public commitments, including
time-bound goals, and establishment of six task
forces focused on addressing harmful practices
within the seafood industry
https://seabos.org/science/Sustainable Shipping Initiative (SSI)
www.ssi2040.orgEstablished in 2011, the SSI is a multi-stakeholder
initiative aimed at improving sustainability in
the shipping industry across social,
environmental, and economic dimensions. SSI
includes 1 of the Ocean 100 companiesPublication in 2011 of “Vision 2040” and associated
roadmap to achieve a sustainable shipping
industry, and covering energy efficiency, labor
rights, enabling finance and policy, and other
issues
https://www.ssi2040.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/SSI_Vision_doc_web.pdfUnited Nations Global Compact—Action Platform
for Sustainable Ocean Business
www.unglobalcompact.org/take-action/oceanEstablished in 2018, this UN Global Compact
Action Platform brings together a group of
leading actors from business, academia, and
governments to advance progress toward
achieving the SDGs. The Platform includes 6 of
the Ocean 100 companiesTen-year roadmap of “critical ambitions” published
in 2020 as “Ocean Stewardship 2030” report
https://unglobalcompact.org/library/5742World Ocean Council (WOC)
www.oceancouncil.orgEstablished in 2008, the WOC is a global
cross-sectoral industry leadership alliance
focused on achieving ocean stewardship and
“corporate ocean responsibility.” The WOC
includes 4 of the Ocean 100 companiesConvening of annual “Sustainable Ocean Summit”
and other activities including the development
of regional ocean councils and a Young Ocean
Professionals initiative
https://www.oceancouncil.org/global-issues-platforms/cross-cutting-issues/
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary material for this article is available at http://advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/7/3/eabc8041/DC1
Additional Files
Supplementary Materials
The Ocean 100: Transnational corporations in the ocean economy
J. Virdin, T. Vegh, J.-B. Jouffray, R. Blasiak, S. Mason, H. Österblom, D. Vermeer, H. Wachtmeister, N. Werner
The PDF file includes:
- Tables S1 to S4
- Section S1
- Figs. S1 to S4
- References
Other Supplementary Material for this manuscript includes the following:
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